This guide is designed to help you focus on the most important points covered in class. It is not meant to be exhaustive, and there may be questions on the exam that are not explicitly covered here, so make sure to review your own lecture notes and/or the lecture videos.
Organization of the Nervous System
Be able to describe the following components of the nervous system: central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, sensory neurons (afferent), efferent neurons
Know the two primary cell types found in the nervous system.
Be able to describe and illustrate a model neuron, as well as the primary function.
Understand the two ways of categorizing neurons (functional vs structural)
What is myelin? Why is it important? Which glial cells form myelin in the CNS? Which ones form myelin in the PNS? How is myelin related to Schwann cells?
Central Nervous System
Compare and contrast gray matter and white matter.
Name the bones that protect the brain and spinal cord.
Why are brain capillaries less leaky than other capillaries? What kinds of molecules can cross the blood-brain barrier?
List and describe the major divisions of the brain.
Describe the structure and identify the function of the thalamus. Why is it called a relay station?
Describe the general flow of sensory information to the brain.
Review the brain regions devoted to processing sensory input of the special senses of vision, hearing, taste, and olfaction.
Name the major phases of sleep and describe them.
Where is the center of emotion in the human brain?
Distinguish between the types of nonassociative learning known as habituation and sensitization.
Distinguish between short-term and long-term memory, and the reflexive and declarative types of long-term memory.
Sensory Physiology
Know the special senses and the somatic senses.
Name the four major groups of receptors and describe the stimuli that activate each receptor type. Identify the adequate stimulus for each of the four major sensory receptor types.
Define threshold. What happens in a sensory neuron if a stimulus is above threshold?
Which part of the brain is involved in the routing of all sensory information except that of smell?
How does frequency of action potentials in the primary sensory neuron code for stimulus intensity? How is duration of the stimulus coded?
Compare the response of tonic receptors and phasic receptors to a constant stimulus.
Name the four somatosensory modalities.
What are nociceptors? How is nociceptive pain mediated? What are some of the substances that modulate nociceptor activity? Why is it inaccurate to call nociceptors “pain receptors”?
What is referred pain and why does it occur?
What are the two distinct functions the ear is specialized to sense?
What is sound? What three attributes of sound waves are being sensed?
Trace the anatomical path followed by sound wave energy as it moves from air through the inner ear.
Diagram the steps by which the energy of sound waves in air is converted into action potentials in the sensory neuron.
Diagram the structure of the cochlea, naming all fluids, windows, and ducts
Define equilibrium. What are the two components of this special sense? What are the sources of sensory information that contribute to our sense of equilibrium?
Summarize the sensory functions of the semicircular canals and otolith organs.
In what ways does the eye control the amount of light hitting the retina?
What are photoreceptors? Compare the organization of photoreceptors in most of the retina with the organization of photoreceptors in the fovea. Why is there a difference?
What is the optic disk and why is it also called the blind spot?
Distinguish between rods and cones. Describe their sensitivities.
Explain why signal processing in the retina is an excellent example of convergence. What generalized role do horizontal cells and amacrine cells play in this process?
Automatic and Somatic Motor Control
What are the two efferent divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
Why is the autonomic division also called the visceral nervous system?
Characterize and compare the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions.
Explain how epinephrine (a catecholamine) will cause some blood vessels to constrict but other vessels to dilate.
Which cranial nerve is the primary parasympathetic tract?
List the targets of autonomic neurons. What are the primary autonomic neurotransmitters?
Outline the steps of neurotransmitter release, beginning with the arrival of an action potential.
Give examples of ways autonomic neurotransmitters can be removed from the synapse. What is the main enzyme responsible for degradation of catecholamines?
Where are the adrenal glands? Describe their anatomy and locate the adrenal medulla.
Anatomically and functionally, how do somatic motor pathways differ from autonomic pathways?
Muscles
List the three types of muscles, and be able to differentiate between them.
Define the following terms: tendon, origin, insertion, joint, flexor, extensor, antagonistic muscle groups
Name and describe the two contractile proteins of the myofibril.
Describe and diagram the relationship between actin and myosin in a myofibril. What is a crossbridge?
What is a sarcomere? Be able to diagram one.
Define the following terms: muscle tension, load, contraction, relaxation
What are the major steps leading to a muscle contraction?
Understand that sliding filament theory of contraction. According to this theory, tension generated in a muscle fiber is directly proportional to _______________.
What is the power stroke?
Diagram and describe the roles of troponin, tropomyosin, and calcium in muscle contraction and relaxation.
Understand the molecular events of a contractile cycle in skeletal muscle, beginning with the rigor state.
Diagram the detailed events of excitation-contraction coupling. Include channels, receptors, ions, and cellular structures.
How does a muscle fiber end a contraction? What is the role of the Ca2+-ATPase?
What factor determines speed of tension development? What factor determines duration of contraction?
Describe or diagram the standardized sequence of recruitment seen in skeletal muscle.
Why is asynchronous recruitment helpful for avoiding fatigue during a sustained contraction?
Compare and contrast isotonic and isometric contractions.
Neural Reflexes
List the steps in a neural reflex.
Define the following terms used to classify neural reflex pathways: somatic reflexes, autonomic reflexes, spinal reflexes, cranial reflexes
List locations where autonomic reflex integration centers can be found.
What are proprioceptors? What are the three types found in the body?
Describe the stretch reflex using the standard steps of a reflex. What is the protective purpose of the stretch reflex?
Describe the crossed extensor reflex.
Understand the three categories of movement: Reflex, Voluntary, or Rhythmic
How does reflex control of visceral muscles differ from reflex control of skeletal muscles?
Cardiovascular System
Describe the basic structure of a cardiovascular (CV) system. What are the key functions of the CV system?
How do arteries differ from veins?
What ensures one-way flow of blood through the system?
Liquids and gases flow from areas of _________________ pressure to areas of _________________ pressure.
Define vasoconstriction and vasodilation in terms of diameter and resistance.
Name the vessels that supply blood to the heart muscle itself.
Compare and contrast the two AV valves and two semilunar valves.
Describe the differences between myocardial autorhythmic cells and myocardial contractile cells.
Diagram the mechanism for E-C coupling in cardiac muscle. Why is this also called Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release?
Diagram the mechanism for cardiac muscle relaxation.
Starting at the sinoatrial (SA) node, diagram the spread of electrical activity through the heart.
What is an electrocardiogram (ECG)? What information does an ECG show? (Fig. 14.15)
Define systole and diastole.
Briefly describe the major events that happen during each phase of the cardiac cycle. Indicate contraction and relaxation states for the chambers, pressure-volume changes for the chambers, heart sounds, and whether heart valves are open or closed.
Define stroke volume.
Identify the mechanisms by which the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions control heart rate. Specify the neurotransmitters/neurohormones, receptors, ions, and any second messengers that might be involved.
What is an inotropic agent? If a chemical has a positive inotropic effect, what does that mean?
What are preload and afterload? What is the ejection fraction?