EVERYDAY CONNECTION

C. elegans: The Model System for Linking Developmental Studies with Genetics

If biologists wanted to research how nicotine dependence develops in the body, how lipids are regulated, or observe the attractant or repellant properties of certain odors, they would clearly need to design three very different experiments. However, they might only need one subject of study: Caenorhabditis elegans. The nematode C. elegans was brought into the focus of mainstream biological research by Dr. Sydney Brenner. Since 1963, Dr. Brenner and scientists worldwide have used this animal as a model system to study many different physiological and developmental mechanisms.

C. elegans is a free-living nematode found in soil. Only about a millimeter long, it can be cultured on agar plates (10,000 worms/plate!), feeding on the common intestinal bacterium Escherichia coli (another long-term resident of biological laboratories worldwide), and therefore can be readily grown and maintained in a laboratory. The biggest asset of this nematode is its transparency, which helps researchers to observe and monitor changes within the animal with ease. It is also a simple organism with about 1,000 cells and a genome of only 20,000 genes. Its chromosomes are organized into five pairs of autosomes plus a pair of sex chromosomes, making it an ideal candidate with which to study genetics. Since every cell can be visualized and identified, this organism is useful for studying cellular phenomena like cell-to-cell interactions, cell-fate determinations, cell division, apoptosis (cell death), and intracellular transport.

Another tremendous asset is the short life cycle of this worm (Figure 28.33). It takes only three days to achieve the “egg to adult to daughter egg”; therefore, the developmental consequences of genetic changes can be quickly identified. The total life span of C. elegans is two to three weeks; hence, age-related phenomena are also easy to observe. There are two sexes in this species: hermaphrodites (XX) and males (XO). However, anatomical males are relatively infrequently obtained from matings between hermaphrodites, since their XO chromosome composition requires meiotic nondisjunction when both parents are XX. Another feature that makes C. elegans an excellent experimental model is that the position and number of the 959 cells present in adult hermaphrodites of this organism is constant. This feature is extremely significant when studying cell differentiation, cell-to-cell communication, and apoptosis. Lastly, C. elegans is also amenable to genetic manipulations using molecular methods, rounding off its usefulness as a model system.

Biologists worldwide have created information banks and groups dedicated to research using C. elegans. Their findings have led, for example, to better understandings of cell communication during development, neuronal signaling, and insight into lipid regulation (which is important in addressing health issues like the development of obesity and diabetes). In recent years, studies have enlightened the medical community with a better understanding of polycystic kidney disease. This simple organism has led biologists to complex and significant findings, growing the field of science in ways that touch the everyday world.

Figure 28.33Caenorhabditis elegans. (a) This light micrograph shows the bodies of a group of roundworms. These hermaphrodites consist of exactly 959 cells. (b) The life cycle of C. elegans has four juvenile stages (L1 through L4) and an adult stage. Under ideal conditions, the nematode spends a set amount of time at each juvenile stage, but under stressful conditions, it may enter a dauer state that does not age significantly and is somewhat analogous to the diapausing state of some insects. (credit a: modification of work by “snickclunk”/Flickr: credit b: modification of work by NIDDK, NIH; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

Parasitic Nematodes

A number of common parasitic nematodes serve as prime examples of parasitism (endoparasitism). These economically and medically important animals exhibit complex life cycles that often involve multiple hosts, and they can have significant medical and veterinary impacts. Here is a partial list of nasty nematodes: Humans may become infected by Dracunculus medinensis, known as guinea worms, when they drink unfiltered water containing copepods (Figure 28.34), an intermediate crustacean host. Hookworms, such as Ancylostoma and Necator, infest the intestines and feed on the blood of mammals, especially of dogs, cats, and humans. Trichina worms (Trichinella) are the causal organism of trichinosis in humans, often resulting from the consumption of undercooked pork; Trichinella can infect other mammalian hosts as well. Ascaris, a large intestinal roundworm, steals nutrition from its human host and may create physical blockage of the intestines. The filarial worms, such as Dirofilaria and Wuchereria, are commonly vectored by mosquitoes, which pass the infective agents among mammals through their blood-sucking activity. One species, Wuchereria bancrofti, infects the lymph nodes of over 120 million people worldwide, usually producing a non-lethal but deforming condition called elephantiasis. In this disease, parts of the body often swell to gigantic proportions due to obstruction of lymphatic drainage, inflammation of lymphatic tissues, and resulting edema. Dirofilaria immitis, a blood-infective parasite, is the notorious dog heartworm species.

Figure 28.34 Life cycle of the guinea worm. The guinea worm Dracunculus medinensis infects about 3.5 million people annually, mostly in Africa. (a) Here, the worm is wrapped around a stick so it can be slowly extracted. (b) Infection occurs when people consume water contaminated by infected copepods, but this can easily be prevented by simple filtration systems. (credit: modification of work by CDC)