Exam #3 Study Guide – Professor St. John's Instructional Materials

Blood Vessels

Describe the physical characteristics of the aorta and major arteries.
Describe the structure of capillary walls. How does capillary wall structure relate to capillary function?
Why does blood pressure decrease as blood flows through the circulatory system?
Define systolic pressure and diastolic pressure.
Explain mean arterial pressure (MAP).
What kinds of problems might result when blood pressure is too low? Too high?
Which two systems of the body are responsible for homeostatic regulation of blood pressure?
Name two ways the cardiovascular system tries to compensate for a decrease in blood volume.
Understand vasodilation vs vasoconstriction.
Where in the brain is the main integrating center for the regulation of cardiovascular function?
Where are the two main receptors for blood pressure located?
A decrease in blood pressure results in __________________ (increased or decreased?) sympathetic activity and __________________ (increased or decreased?) parasympathetic activity.
In what structures does gas exchange take place?
Know uncontrollable risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Know controllable risk factors for cardiovascular disease.
Briefly describe how a blood clot can lead to myocardial infarction, arrhythmia, and potentially cardiac arrest or death.

Plasma and the Cellular Elements of Blood

List the three main cellular elements of the blood and identify their primary function(s).
Where are pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells found?
Define hematopoiesis. Where does it take place in adults?
Describe the structure and contents of the mature RBC. How are old RBCs destroyed, and what happens to the RBC components?
Describe the structure of hemoglobin (Hb).
List four major causes of anemia.
How can platelets repair a damaged blood vessel? Why is platelet activation a positive feedback event? How is formation of the platelet plug restricted to the damaged region?

Respiratory System

List four primary functions of the respiratory system.
Distinguish between cellular respiration and external respiration.
Distinguish between inspiration and expiration.
Describe the reasons why and the mechanisms by which the airways warm, humidify, and filter inspired air.
Describe the structure of the alveoli. Describe the composition of the alveolar walls and surrounding connective tissue.
Describe the movement of gases with regard to pressure.
Define ventilation and respiratory cycle.
Name and briefly describe the four lung volumes.
What property of the respiratory system is responsible for passive expiration?
Define compliance.
What is the function of surfactants? Which will have a higher concentration of surfactant, a large alveolus or a small one? Explain.
Explain the relationship between resistance to air flow, length of airways (L), viscosity of air (η), and radius of airways (r).

Gas Exchange

Identify the main components of exchange and transport of O2 and CO2.
What three variables of arterial blood composition are monitored and regulated to prevent hypoxia and hypercapnia?
What are the ways that oxygen can be transported through the body? What transports most oxygen to the tissues?
List the three ways CO2 is transported in the blood. Why is it important that CO2 be removed from the body?
What is the primary chemical stimulus for changes in ventilation?
How do protective reflexes guard the lungs?

Kidneys and Urinary System

List the functions of the kidneys.
What structures comprise the urinary system?
List and briefly describe the three processes of the kidney. In which of these processes is fluid entering the body’s external environment?
Understand the parts of the nephron, and the processes that take place in each.
What is GFR? What factors influence it?
Describe tubuloglomerular feedback as a result of increased GFR. What role does NaCl play in the tubuloglomerular feedback mechanism?
Hormones that influence arteriolar resistance and GFR include ______________, a potent vasoconstrictor, and ______________, which act as vasodilators.
List some molecules that are transported using Na⁺-linked secondary active transport.
What is excretion?
Define clearance
What is Micturition?

Fluid and Electrolyte Homeostasis

Why is fluid and electrolyte homeostasis important? List some of the regulated substances and what happens if they get out of balance.
List the normal routes of water gain and water loss for the body.
The kidneys control urine concentration by varying the amounts of ______________ and ______________ reabsorbed in the distal tubule and collecting duct.
To produce dilute urine, the kidney must ______________. To produce concentrated urine, the kidney must ______________.
Diagram the osmolarity changes of the nephron and indicate where reabsorption of water and solutes takes place.
The addition of NaCl to the body raises osmolarity. What are the two responses triggered by this stimulus?
What are the homeostatic challenges caused by severe dehydration? What effect does severe dehydration have on GFR?
Give the normal range of plasma pH.
Acidosis _____________ (increases or decreases?) neuron excitability; alkalosis _____________ (increases or decreases?) neuron excitability.
Name the three mechanisms used by the body to cope with minute-to-minute changes in pH.
Describe what happens to pH, HCO₃⁻, and CO2 when there is an increase in H⁺ from a metabolic source.
Describe how ventilation can compensate for pH disturbances.
Describe the two ways that kidneys can alter pH.

Digestion

What is the end result of digestion?
Understand the difference between secretion and absorption
Understand the digestive processes that take place in the mouth, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine
Review the events that take place during deglutition
Know the sources of HCl and HCO3-
Understand the events of the cephalic and gastric phases of digestion
Understand the difference between long and short reflexes

Metabolism, Exercise and Nutrition

Reproduction

Know the genital and internal structures associated with the primary sex characteristics of males and females.
Understand the number of chromosomes in sex cells as they move through the process of meiosis.
Know the path of an egg from ovulation until it is expelled from the body.
What hormones trigger the various stages of the menstrual cycle?
Review the various methods of contraception
Understand the developmental stages of gestation
How is sex determined in humans?
What hormones are involved in lactation?

Cumulative Study Guide

Review the following topics: